Journal of Solar Energy Research

Techno-Economic Assessment and Optimization of Grid-Connected Solar Powered Electric Vehicle Charging Stations in Urban Indonesia

Document Type : Research Article

Authors

1 Department of Electrical Science, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

2 Department of Electrical Engineering, Dirgantara Markesal Suryadarma, Jakarta, Indonesia

10.22059/jser.2026.401157.1623

Abstract

This study evaluates the feasibility of a grid connected rooftop photovoltaic system for fast charging using a 120  case study in Bandung. Photovoltaic energy yield is validated using , while hourly energy balance and discounted cash flow are analyzed in HOMER Pro for three scenarios namely  grid only,  photovoltaic with self consumption only, and photovoltaic with net billing export credit. The model applies local climate data, a capital cost of 20 million rupiah per kilowatt peak, and a real discount rate of eight percent, resulting in a performance ratio of 0.78 to 0.82 and annual photovoltaic production of about 160 megawatt hours. For a fast charging station with an annual load of 182.5 megawatt hours or 500 kilowatt hours per day from a 50 kilowatt charger, photovoltaic generation supplies 63 percent of demand with 72 percent self-consumption. Compared with the scenario, photovoltaic integration reduces the Net Present Cost by 9 to 13 percent, lowers the cost of energy to 910 to 940 rupiah per kilowatt hour, achieves an 8 to 10 year payback period, and avoids about 87 tons of carbon dioxide emissions annually.

Keywords

  1. Akimoto, K. (2023). Assessment of road transportation measures for global net-zero emissions considering comprehensive energy systems. IATSS Research, 47(2), 196-203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iatssr.2023.02.005
  2. Yuan, Q., Y. Ye, Y. Tang, X. Liu, and Q. Tian. (2023). Low Carbon Electric Vehicle Charging Coordination in Coupled Transportation and Power Networks. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 59(2), 2162-2172. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2022.3230014
  3. Cahyono, W.E., Parikesit, B. Joy, W. Setyawati, and R. Mahdi. (2022). Projection of CO2 emissions in Indonesia. Materials Today: Proceedings, 63, S438-S444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.04.091
  4. Deendarlianto, A. Widyaparaga, T. Widodo, I. Handika, I.C. Setiawan, and A. Lindasista. (2020). Modelling of Indonesian road transport energy sector in order to fulfill the national energy and oil reduction targets. Renewable Energy, 146, 504-518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.06.169
  5. Sandu, S., M. Yang, T.M. Mahlia, W. Wongsapai, H.C. Ong, N. Putra, and S.M.A. Rahman Energy-Related CO2 Emissions Growth in ASEAN Countries: Trends, Drivers and Policy Implications. Energies, 2019. 12, https://doi.org/10.3390/en12244650
  6. Zahari, T.N. and B.C. McLellan. (2024). Sustainability of Indonesia’s transportation sector energy and resources demand under the low carbon transition strategies. Energy, 311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.133385
  7. Hakam, D.F. and S. Jumayla. (2024). Electric vehicle adoption in Indonesia: Lesson learned from developed and developing countries. Sustainable Futures, 8, 100348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sftr.2024.100348
  8. Rahman, A., I.W.K. Suryawan, S. Suhardono, V.V. Nguyen, and C.-H. Lee. (2025). Determinants of electric vehicle adoption in urban and peri-urban areas. Energy for Sustainable Development, 85, 101664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2025.101664
  9. Nunes, P., T. Farias, and M.C. Brito. (2015). Day charging electric vehicles with excess solar electricity for a sustainable energy system. Energy, 80, 263-274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.11.069
  10. Yap, K.Y., H.H. Chin, and J.J. Klemeš. (2022). Solar Energy-Powered Battery Electric Vehicle charging stations: Current development and future prospect review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112862
  11. Silalahi, D.F., A. Blakers, M. Stocks, B. Lu, C. Cheng, and L. Hayes. (2021). Indonesia’s Vast Solar Energy Potential. Energies, 14(17). https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175424
  12. McNeil, M.A., N. Karali, and V. Letschert. (2019). Forecasting Indonesia's electricity load through 2030 and peak demand reductions from appliance and lighting efficiency. Energy for Sustainable Development, 49, 65-77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2019.01.001
  13. Damanik, N., R.C. Octavia, and D.F. Hakam Powering Indonesia’s Future: Reviewing the Road to Electric Vehicles Through Infrastructure, Policy, and Economic Growth. Energies, 2024. 17, https://doi.org/10.3390/en17246408
  14. Cedillo, M.H., H. Sun, J. Jiang, and Y. Cao. (2022). Dynamic pricing and control for EV charging stations with solar generation. Applied Energy, 326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119920
  15. Nimalsiri, N.I., E.L. Ratnam, C.P. Mediwaththe, D.B. Smith, and S.K. Halgamuge. (2021). Coordinated charging and discharging control of electric vehicles to manage supply voltages in distribution networks: Assessing the customer benefit. Applied Energy, 291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.116857
  16. Amiruddin, A., R. Dargaville, A. Liebman, and R. Gawler. (2024). Integration of Electric Vehicles and Renewable Energy in Indonesia’s Electrical Grid. Energies, 17(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/en17092037
  17. Siregar, Y.I. and B. Möller. (2023). Sector coupling of electricity, transport and cooling with high share integration of renewables in Indonesia. Smart Energy, 10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.segy.2023.100102
  18. Bollenbach, J., N. Eiser, F. Baumgarte, R. Keller, and J. Strüker. (2025). Individual driver emission reduction due to electric vehicle-based residential load shifting: Insights from Germany. Journal of Cleaner Production, 519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2025.145894
  19. Loth, E., C. Qin, J.G. Simpson, and K. Dykes. (2022). Why we must move beyond LCOE for renewable energy design. Advances in Applied Energy, 8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adapen.2022.100112
  20. Cheikh-Mohamad, S., M. Capone, L. Piegari, and P. Tricoli. (2021). PV-powered electric vehicle charging stations. Applied Sciences, 11(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/app11041770
  21. Dewi, R.G., U.W.R. Siagian, B. Asmara, S.D. Anggraini, J. Ichihara, and T. Kobashi. (2023). Equitable, affordable, and deep decarbonization pathways for low-latitude developing cities by rooftop photovoltaics integrated with electric vehicles. Applied Energy, 332, 120507. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.120507
  22. Sunny Ummul, F., H. Muhamad Alief, P. Anugrah Muhtarom, and V. Khaisya Refaya. Solar-Based Electric Vehicle Charging: Analysis of Conception and Regulation in Indonesia. in Proceedings of the International Conference For Democracy and National Resilience (ICDNR 2021). 2021. Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.211221.009
  23. Raja Ma’amor Shah, R.N.F.A., N.A. Syahirah Azmar, M.S. Mohd Azmi, N.S. Abd Karim, N.H. Md Husin, N. Misron, and N.S. Utami. (2024). Sustainable Urban Planning: Criteria for Efficient Photovoltaic Electric Vehicle Charging Stations Deployment in Malaysia. Semarak International Journal of Electronic System Engineering, 1(1), 35-45. https://doi.org/10.37934/sijese.1.1.3545b
  24. Shern, S.J., M.T. Sarker, G. Ramasamy, S.P. Thiagarajah, F. Al Farid, and S.T. Suganthi Artificial Intelligence-Based Electric Vehicle Smart Charging System in Malaysia. World Electric Vehicle Journal, 2024. 15, https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15100440
  25. Prasetyo, A.D. and I. Soesanti. (2022). Techno-Economic Assessment of Fast Charging Infrastructure in Jakarta. Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 28(2), 431-438. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijeecs.v28.i2
  26. Sesotyo, P.A. (2025). Evaluating the Damage Cost of Vehicle to Grid Integration in Indonesia Power Grid for Sustainable Energy System. International Journal of Engineering Continuity, 4(1), 85-117. https://doi.org/10.58291/ijec.v4i1.368
  27. Oyekale, J., M. Petrollese, V. Tola, and G. Cau Impacts of Renewable Energy Resources on Effectiveness of Grid-Integrated Systems: Succinct Review of Current Challenges and Potential Solution Strategies. Energies, 2020. 13, https://doi.org/10.3390/en13184856
  28. Wang, D., X. Chen, X. Liu, Y. Li, Z. Piao, and H. Li. (2025). Dynamic Tariff Adjustment for Electric Vehicle Charging in Renewable-Rich Smart Grids: A Multi-Factor Optimization Approach to Load Balancing and Cost Efficiency. Energies, 18(16). https://doi.org/10.3390/en18164283
  29. Hidayatno, A., A.D. Setiawan, I.M. Wikananda Supartha, A.O. Moeis, I. Rahman, and E. Widiono. (2020). Investigating policies on improving household rooftop photovoltaics adoption in Indonesia. Renewable Energy, 156, 731-742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.04.106
  30. Pandey, A.K., B. Kalidasan, R. Reji Kumar, S. Rahman, V.V. Tyagi, Krismadinata, Z. Said, P.A. Salam, D.E. Juanico, J.U. Ahamed, K. Sharma, M. Samykano, and S.K. Tyagi Solar Energy Utilization Techniques, Policies, Potentials, Progresses, Challenges and Recommendations in ASEAN Countries. Sustainability, 2022. 14, https://doi.org/10.3390/su141811193
Journal of Solar Energy Research
Volume 11, Issue 1
January 2026
Pages 2835-2850